Administrative StructureKazakhstan consists of 14 provinces (oblystar). Astana (formerly called Akmola) is the capital of Kazakhstan since July 1998. In the year of 1997 the population of Astana was 300,000 people.
Among other big cities are former capital of Kazakhstan Almaty (1.5 million people), Karagandy (600,000), Shymkent (400,000), and Semey (340,000).

Climate The climate in Kazakhstan is sharply continental and very dry. Most of the republic receives only from 100 to 200 millimetres per year. Precipitation totals less than 100 millimetres in the south-central regions, but precipitation in the mountains in the east averages as much as 600 millimetres per year, mostly in the form of snow.
     A lack of precipitation makes Kazakhstan a sunny republic; there are 120 clear days a year in the north, and 260 in the south.
     The temperature can vary widely. Kazakhstan has hot summer and very cold winter. Average temperature in the north in winter is 19-24°C below zero (2-11°F below zero), in the south it is 3-9°C below zero (16-26°F), in summer in the north it is about 22-28°C (72-82°F), in the south - 26-29°C (79-84°F). Average winter temperature in January is 13°C below zero (9°F); average summer temperature in July is 25°C (77°F). The lowest winter temperature may go down to -50°C (-58°F), and in summer the temperature can reach 38°C (100°F). 

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Clothing

Light-coloured cotton garments are the best for summer travel. A hat is a necessary accessory. Heat and dust make thick-soled walking shoes a better choice. In colder weather, bring warm boots and woollen layers. When desert trekking, be ready for nightly temperature drops. If you leave lowland for the mountains, prepare well for intense cold, strong winds and heavy snows. There are no special clothing requirements for visiting Islamic religious site except that you should take care to cover most parts of your body including arms and legs. A lavish display of jewellery, bulging handbags and wallets and a neck full of cameras will make you stand out in a crowd. Be discreet, respectful of local culture and traditions and carry the minimum of valuables.    top

Communications

Communication system is ensured via a system of line and station facilities of post, telephone, telegraph, and tele-and-radio communication.
Long-distance communication within the country is based on landline and microwave radio-relay lines. International communication is based on landline and microwave radio relay with the former Soviet republics and China; with other countries -on satellite and through international telecommunications circuits at the Moscow international gateway switch; Trans-Asia-Europe (TAE) fiber-optic cable; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat.
Mobile phone services are also available in most major cities of Kazakhstan.

CraftsFolk arts have developed in tune with a nomadic or semi-nomadic way of life. The main items used for decorating are clothes, arms, jewellery, mostly of silver incorporating semi-precious stones like lapis and carnelian, and, to a lesser extend, weaving, embroidery and brightly coloured rugs - all of which have a practical use as well as artistic value. Multicoloured felt mats (koshma), wall coverings and bedspreads; traditionally decorate the inside of yurta, a transportable dwelling, consisting of wooden framework covered with felt.

Presently craftsmen are practising traditional handicrafts including ceramics, metal chasing and embossing, casting of tin and bronze, stone, bone and wood carving, jewellery making, embroidery, rug and carpet-making, weaving and leather work.     top

Cuisine   Kazakh national cuisine is a mirror reflection of the very soul of the nation and its history. Traditional Kazakh cuisine always gives preference to boiled foods. Meat is the basis of the majority of meals. Kazakhs prepare delicious kazy, smoked horsemeat sausage. Served on special occasions sliced with cold noodles it is called naryn. Such delicacies as shuzhyk, zhal, zhaya and karta are other kinds of horsemeat sausage. Zhuta is pasta shaped like a Swiss roll with a carrot and pumpkin filling. Widespread is the use of milk and sour milk products. It is well explainable because kumys (fermented mare's milk), shubat (camel's milk) and airan (sour milk beverage) are easy to store in conditions of nomad life.

Bread is called non (rounds of unleavened bread) though preference has always been given to baursaks (fried rolls) accompanied by the most popular drink - tea with milk.
Besbarmak or meat 'a la Kazakh remains a favourite dish. Besbarmak (the word means five fingers, because this dish is eaten by hands) consists of pieces of boiled rolled out dough garnished with thinly sliced meat (mostly horse or mutton meat) and vegetables.
Plov, shashlyk, samsa, manty, chiburekki, lagman are popular in all Central Asian republics.
Plov is the staple food made up of scraps of mutton, shredded yellow turnip and rice steamed in an iron pot. Kazakhs make a sweet plov with dried apricots, raisins and prunes, while plov Askabak is made with pumpkin.
Shashlyk (kebab) is skewered chunks of mutton barbecued over charcoal served with thinly sliced raw onions.
Samsa (meat pies) is a pastry pie stuffed with meat and onion or pumpkin, potato, cabbage, mushrooms or nuts.
Manty are large dumplings stuffed with finely chopped meat, seasoned with various spices and a large amount of onion, and then steamed in a special pot.
Lagman is a long thick noodles garnished with a spicy meat sauce.
Chiburekki are deep-fried dough pies stuffed with meat and onion.    top

Culture    On the territory of today Kazakhstan there are more than 22 sites of ancient settlements. In Tangaly ravine, not far from Almaty archaeologists have discovered about a thousand of the rock-paintings, which one can call the ancient gallery of art.
The Kazakhs had a well-articulated culture based on their nomadic pastoral lifestyle. Although Islam was introduced to most of the Kazakhs in the 17^th and 18^th centuries, the religion was not fully assimilated until much later. As a result, it coexisted with earlier elements of shamanistic and animistic beliefs.

Because animal husbandry was central to the Kazakhs' traditional lifestyle, most of their nomadic practices and customs relate in some way to livestock.
Because of the lack of a written language until the mid-19^th century, their literary tradition relies upon oral histories. These histories were memorised and recited by the akyn, the elder responsible for remembering the legends and histories, and by jyrau, poets who travelled with khans. Most of the legends concern the activities of a batir or hero-warrior, the fighter against conquerors (for example the Kalmyks).

The Kazakh musical culture is very rich and varied. For millennia nomads had been traversing the steppes and plateau of Central Asia, surrounded by vast deserts and harsh mountain landscapes, and for them music was a form of communication and a language that every nomad spoke. The musical art includes pastoral, nomadic and harvest songs and epic and religious songs as well. Solo lute (komuz -3 stringed lute or dombra - 2 stringed lute) players often accompany the repertoire, performed by bards or bakshis. Another popular instrument is the temir komuz (jaw's harp) which is played in an unusual manner; it combines playing a melody in the higher register and simultaneously making a buzzing sound in the lower register. Also a notable feature is the presence of female singers.

The biggest name in Kazakh cultural history is Abay Qunanbaev, a 19^th century poet and man of letters who launched Kazakh as a literary language. He also translated Russian works into Kazakh. Before Abay, Kazakh literature consisted chiefly of long oral poems.

As cultural event it is worth to mention the International Song Festival, The Voice of Asia, which is held annually in the Medeo complex near Almaty at the end of July - beginning of August and it attracts participants from Asia, Europe and the USA. The folk festivals held also in August in Almaty usually summon people from all over the country during which national music, songs, dance, sports, national costumes and dishes can be experienced.
Modern theatrical art is also well developed in Kazakhstan. There are theatres of different genres and trends: drama, musical drama and comedy, opera, ballet etc.     top

Customs  On entering the country, all the travellers are obliged to fill in the Customs Declaration Form, which must be retained until the departure from the country. The following things must be shown in a declaration form: cash foreign currency, precious metals and stones, pearls as well as jeweller and other household products from these metals, stones and pearls. Customs inspection can be long and detailed. It is advisable to keep receipts for items bought in Kazakhstan in order to avoid difficulties at the customs on departure.
Duty Free: The following goods may be imported into Kazakhstan by persons of 18 years of age or older without incurring customs duty:
1000 cigarettes or 1000g of tobacco products; 1.5 litres of spirits and 2 litres of wine; a reasonable quantity of perfume for personal use; gifts up to the value of US$500.
Prohibited imports: Military weapons and ammunition, narcotics, pornography, loose pearls and anything owned by a third party that is to be carried in for that third party.
Prohibited exports: As prohibited imports, as well as annulled securities, state loan certificates, lottery tickets, works of art and antiques (unless permission has been granted by the Ministry of Culture), saiga horns, Siberian stag, punctuate and red deer antlers (unless on organised hunting trip), and punctuate deer skins. top

Ecology  The environment of Kazakhstan has been badly damaged by human activity. Most of the water in Kazakhstan is polluted by industrial effluents, pesticide and fertiliser residue, and, in some places, radioactivity. The most visible deterioration has been inflicted to the Aral Sea. The sea began to shrink rapidly in times when irrigation and other water demands on the only significant tributaries, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya rivers, sharply increased. The Aral Sea had lost an estimated 60 % of its volume, in the process breaking into three unconnected segments.
By contrast, the water level of the Caspian Sea has been rising steadily since 1978 for the reasons that scientists have not been able to explain fully. At the northern end of the sea, more than a million hectares of land in Atyrau Province have been flooded.
Another problem is Lake Balkhash. The ecological system of the basin is experiencing negative changes - the region is turning into desert due to the lack of water, thus reducing the efficiency of human economic activity.
Wind erosion has also had an impact on the northern and central parts of the republic because of the introduction of wide-scale dry-land wheat farming.
Industrial pollution is a bigger concern in manufacturing cities, where ageing factories pump huge quantities of unfiltered pollutants into the air and groundwater.
The gravest environmental threat to Kazakhstan comes from radiation, especially in the Semey (Semipalatinsk) region in the northeast, where the Soviet Union had tested its nuclear weapons, some of them above ground.    top

Economy    Kazakhstan has rich deposits of natural resources. The republic's industrial sector is developed in specific areas such as metal processing, chemicals, textiles, and food processing.

During the Soviet period, Kazakhstan supplied about 7 % of the Soviet Union's gold, or about 24 tons per year. Since independence, the republic has attracted large foreign partners to develop existing or new mines. The energy sector is the most productive component of Kazakhstan's industrial structure. Oil deposits have been found in the Caspian Sea. An especially high paced growth has been registered in the production sphere and its key industries - mining and processing. The chemical industry is developing quickly.
Agriculture is the second largest sector of the economy. Grain production is especially important in the north-central region, and cotton and rice predominate in the south. At the recent session of the International Council for Grain, in London, Kazakhstan was recognised as a grain power, ranked 6^th on volume of grain exports.

Kazakhstan also is a major producer of meat and milk. Kazakhstan has a well-developed network of factories producing military goods. Kazakhstan has applied for membership in the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Joining the WTO will help Kazakhstan to integrate into the world economy, as well as conform its trade regime to international standards.     top

Education The constitution of 1995 specifies that secondary education is mandatory and free, providing that citizens have the further right to compete for free higher education in the republic's universities. Private, paid education is permitted but it remains subject to the state control and supervision.
State education is compulsory from the age of 7; children usually attend at least 11 years of school. The majority of the population has primary, junior and secondary school education. Entrance examinations are required for all universities and colleges, and one-tenth of the population holds a degree from a college or university. Kazakhstan’s adult literacy rate exceeds 97%.

Kazakhstan has 8,027 schools attended by approximately 3,070,200 children, including 7,929 schools of general education attended by 3,050,900 children. There are 62 night schools, 31 full-time-tuition and by-correspondence schools and 21 training centres for adults. There is a network of general education establishments of new type (gymnasiums and lyceums) whose number is 216 including 131 gymnasiums and 85 lyceums.

Taking into consideration the ethnic needs of the population school education is effected in 7 languages. From out of the total number of schools in 3,291 they teach in Kazakh, in 2,406 - in Russian, in 2,138 in Russian and Kazakh, in 77 - in Uzbek, in 13 - in Uyghur, in 6 - in Tajik, Ukrainian and German. In areas of compact residence of national minorities the authorities arrange studying of 14 native languages.

Kazakhstan will switch to the international education standards and introduce a 12-year secondary school education in the nearest future. The system of higher education includes 126 higher educational institutions, more particularly: 53 state-owned and 73 private ones. Training of foreign students is carried on in 47 higher educational establishments of Kazakhstan. The country has a rather wide network of research institutions (more than 80), doing explorations in different fields such as agriculture, physics, astronomy, archaeology, etc.

Emblem   The National Emblem of the Republic of Kazakhstan is a picture of a shanyrak (the cupola of a yurt) on a blue background, from which uyks (body bracket) like sun rays are being radiated thus framing of the wings of mythical horses.
At the bottom of the emblem there is an inscription "Kazakhstan". The National Emblem of the Republic of Kazakhstan combines two colours: golden and blue. top

Flag Kazakhstan's flag is light blue, symbolising the blue skies of the country and its hopes for the future. On this field a stylised eagle is beneath a golden sun. At the hoist is a national ornamentation - also in gold.

Geography Kazakhstan (which means the Land of Kazakhs) is situated in Central Asia, deep in the Eurasian continent with an area of about 2,717,300 square kilometres (1,049,150 square miles). The country borders on Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan in the south, Russia in the north, Russia and the Caspian Sea in the west; and China in the east. Total length of borders amounts to 12,187 kilometres. The longest distance between the west-eastern points - 3,000 km (from the river-mouth of the Volga to the mountain ranges of Altay) and north-southern is 1,600 km (from the West-Siberian plain to the mountain ranges of the Tian Shan).

Steppes occupy some 24.1 % of the territory of Kazakhstan, deserts - 44% and semi-deserts - 14% with forests occupying 5.5 % of the territory. Only 12.4 % of Kazakhstan is mountainous, with most of the mountains located in the Altay and Tian Shan ranges in the east and north-west, although the Ural Mountains extend southward from Russia into the northern part of west-central Kazakhstan. Many of the peaks of the Altay and Tian Shan ranges are snow covered year-round, and their run-off is the source for most of Kazakhstan's rivers and streams.

There are 8,500 big and small rivers in Kazakhstan. The length of each of seven largest rivers exceeds 100 km. The largest are the Ural and the Emba flowing into the Caspian Sea, the Syr Darya falling into the Aral Sea while the Irtysh, the Ishim and the Tobol run all across the Republic to eventually reach the Arctic Ocean.
There are 48,000 big and small lakes in Kazakhstan. The three largest bodies of water are Lake Balkhash and the Caspian and Aral Seas, both of which lie partially within Kazakhstan.
Nature has bestowed Kazakhstan with unlimited wealth. Kazakhstan is well endowed with energy resources, including reserves of coal, oil and natural gas, which makes the republic one of the top energy producing regions of the CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States).
The Kazakh flora contains more than 5,700 species of plants. When speaking about the flora and fauna of the Republic, we have to mention 155 species of mammals, 480 and 150 species of birds and fish respectively and about 250 species of medicinal herbs.     top

Health Public health care is free of charge. The health system employs 29 doctors per 1,000 people and 86.7 other medical personnel per 1,000. There are 1,805 hospitals in the republic, with 76 beds per 1,000 people. There are 3,129 general health clinics, 1,826 gynaecological, and paediatric clinics.
Recently a few private medical practices have been introduced with modern facilities and equipment.

Holidays

January 1-2 - New Year (according to Gregorian calendar)
March 8 - The International Women's Day
March 22 - Nauryz Meiramy
May 1 - Kazakhstan People's Unity Day.
May 9 - Victory Day
August 30 - Constitution Day
October 25 - Day of the Republic
December 16 - Independence Day of the Republic of Kazakhstan

Kazakhs love to celebrate holidays and special occasions. During these times, Kazakhs often dress in their traditional clothes. Villages or city neighbourhoods will set up yurts nearby where they host elaborate meals. Kazakhs will frequently go to visit friends and family, bearing gifts, flowers and candy. Merry-making, games, traditional horse-races, and various amusements accompany festivities.

One of the favourite holidays, pre-Islamic festival Nauryz meiramy (New Days) was reintroduced in 1995. It is a New Year's eve according to the ancient Oriental calendar and the day of spring equinox. When Kazakhs celebrate Nauryz, presence of the figure of "7" is indispensable - it embodies 7 days of the week - time units of universal eternity. In front of aksakals (white beards or old men) they would put 7 bowls with the drink of Nauryz kozhe, prepared of 7 grades of 7 types of cereals. Nauryz is celebrated with traditional games and festivals, street art and colourful fairs.

Victory Day is the national holiday in honour of the victory in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.     top

Language The official language is Kazakh. Kazakh is a part of the Nogai-Kipchak subgroup of north-eastern Turkic languages, heavily influenced by both Tatar and Mongol. Kazakh was first written only in the 1860s, using Arabic script. In 1929 Latin script was introduced; in 1940 - a modified form of Cyrillic. In 1992 the Government decreed to replace the Cyrillic alphabet with the Turkish version of the Roman alphabet. Meanwhile the Cyrillic alphabet is in general use and most of the people in the cities can speak Russian, whereas country people tend to only speak Kazakh. English is usually spoken by those involved in tourism. Uyghur and other regional languages and dialects are also spoken.

MoneyKazakhstan currency is called Tenge. Currency code: KZT. One Kazakh Tenge = 100 tiyin. Notes are in denominations of T 2000, 1000, 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1. No coins have been minted.

Currency exchange: The national currency, the Tenge, may only be obtained within Kazakhstan. Foreign currency should only be exchanged at official bureaux and all transactions must be recorded on the currency declaration form, which is issued on arrival. It is wise to retain all exchange receipts, although they are seldom inspected. Unless travelling with a licensed tourist company, in which case accommodation, transport and meals are paid before departure, money should be brought in US Dollars cash and exchanged when necessary.
Credit & debit cards: Major European and international credit cards, including Visa and Diners Club, are accepted in the larger hotels in Almaty and in major shops and restaurants. There are no facilities for credit card cash withdrawals in Kazakhstan.
Travellers' cheques: To avoid additional exchange rate charges, travellers are advised to take travellers cheques in US Dollars.
Currency regulations: There is no limit on import and export of local currency. Also there is no limit on import of foreign currency provided it is declared on arrival. The export of foreign currency is limited to the amount imported. Special bank permission is required for all exceeding amounts.

Banking hours: 09.30-17.30 Monday to Friday. top

Political system The Republic of Kazakhstan is the unitary state with the presidential form of government. The Republic has approved itself as the democratic, legal and social state. The highest legislative body in Kazakhstan is the bicameral Kenges (Parliament) which is elected for a 5-year term. Kenges consists of the Senate and the Majilis.

Government carries out executive authority of the Republic of Kazakhstan; it is in charge of the system of the executive organs and leads their activities. Government is charged by Prime minister. In its' work it is responsible to President and accountable to Parliament.

The President of the republic, who is the head of state and is also elected for a 5-year term, holds the executive power and appoints the Prime minister and the Council of Ministers.

At present nine political parties are registered with the Ministry of Justice. The main political parties are the Party of National Unity, the Democratic Party, the Co-operative Party and the Rebirth Party. Generally, the policies of these parties are broadly in line with those of the Government. Opposition is centred on the nationalist, socialist and communist parties. However, political parties in Kazakhstan have not played a significant role up to date yet, due, in part, to the fact that Parliament is not elected on the basis of political parties, but rather as individuals representing specific territories.

PopulationThe Republic is a multinational state inhabited with representatives of more than 126 nationalities. In the year 2000 the population of Kazakhstan was 14.9 million people. 55 % of the population is urban and 45 % is rural. Annual growth rate is -1.0 %. The population density, 5.9 persons per square kilometre, is among the lowest in the world, partly because the country includes large areas of inhospitable terrain.

The Kazakhs are the largest among the country’s ethnic groups, accounting for 53% of the population, followed by the Russians (32%), the Ukrainians (4,5%), the Germans (3.1%), the Uzbeks (2.3%), the Tatars (1.9%) and others (3.2%). The relative weight of the Kazakh ethnic group has increased since the country's independence, mainly due to the emigration of non-Kazakh ethnic groups and the return of many ethnic Kazakhs to the country. top

Religion 47 % of Kazakhs are Sunni Muslim, 44 % - Russian Orthodox, 2 % - Protestant (mainly Baptist), with smaller numbers of Roman Catholic, Jewish, Buddhist and other believers. The Kazakhs do not express their religious feelings fervently - Kazakhstan is an outlying district of the Muslim world and a meeting point of Russian, Chinese and Central Asian civilisations. Islam plays a minor role in the policy and there are no significant Islamic political organisations in the country. The 1995 constitution stipulates that Kazakhstan is a secular state. Kazakhstan is the only Central Asian state whose constitution does not assign a special status to Islam.

State systemOn December 16, 1991 the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted the Constitutional Law on State Independence. December 16 became Independence Day of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Traditions The traditional Kazakh way of life - both nomadic and semi-nomadic - determined the character, form and content of Kazakh culture, many features of which are preserved to this day.

Vestiges of the ancient traditions from the cult of nature are still preserved today as Kazakhs venerate mountains, peaks, lakes and rivers. A solitary tree can become an object of worship. A traveller, coming across such a tree, ties a piece of his clothing to its branches in the hope that all his secret dreams will come true. On the top of this folk tradition, a new meaning emerged as Islam penetrated the world view of the Kazakhs. When Ibrahim was ready to sacrifice his son in obedience to Allah, a ram was found caught in the thorns, and became a substitute for the son. The pieces of wool left behind on the bush, and the cloth rags tied to branches, became symbols of complete consecration to Allah. Trees and bushes covered with cloth blossoms can be found in the most unusual and auspicious places.

Popular ideas about the origin of domestic animals brought about numerous legends, according to which the horse, being swift and light on its feet, was created from the wind, the sheep from the sky and fire, and the mountain goat from stone.

The tiring journey from winter to summer camps was interrupted by short stops, during which celebrations were held and games of all kinds were organised. The season when the nomadic caravan arrived at the jailoo, the summer pasture grounds in the mountains, was especially rich in celebrations. After setting up yurts, the Kazakhs would visit their friends, organise competitions among their poets and singers, and play various games. Wedding ceremonies, accompanied by ancient customs, were commonly held at that time. When leaving their camp, the Kazakhs carefully followed the ancient rites such as purification by fire. It was thought necessary for the cattle to pass between large bonfires to drive out evil spirits.

The Kazakhs observed many events as important milestones in the personal life of an individual. Besikke salar, placing the new-born in the cradle, is a tradition associated with hope for the baby's rapid growth, health and strength. Atka otyrgyzu is when the child mounts a horse for the first time and takes a kamcha (lash) and spear into his hands, symbolising the parents' desire to see him become a skilled rider, able to throw the spear far and well. The wedding ceremony was accompanied by ritual songs, dances and the construction of swings. Finally, there were funeral ceremonies, also exercising ancient rituals.

Nowadays, an encounter with a Kazakh shaman, representing the vestiges of the Kazakhs' ancient, pre-Islamic religious traditions, is quite rare. In the past, the shaman was a healer and an important guest at wedding ceremonies, where he predicted the newly-weds' future. Islam has destroyed and replaced many ancient beliefs of the Kazakhs. However, vestiges of the ancient traditions still live on in the everyday life of the people. Kazakhs also love having guests and are generous in their hospitality. There is a saying: "Kazakhs' hearts are like the steppes - wide, kind and generous". Regardless of the hour of arrival of the guests, Kazakh women will immediately prepare the table full of food. Kazakhs traditionally have respect for older people.top

Transport Kazakhstan's transportation was poorly developed because of the inhospitable terrain that separates population centres. Only the largest cities are linked by roads and railroad. Nowadays Kazakhstan is modernising its transportation facilities.

Air: There are 54 airports in the Republic. The airline traffic covers practically all regions of the Republic. 40 airlines are registered which have operation certificates for air courts. The international airports are located in Astana and Almaty cities. National Air Kazakhstan carries out international flights to Amsterdam, Bangkok, Beijing, Budapest, Delhi, Frankfurt, Hanover, Islamabad, Istanbul, London, Sharjah, Tehran, and Tel Aviv. Within the CIS, it also flies to Ashgabat, Baku, Bishkek, Dushanbe, Ekaterinburg, Kiev, Mineral Waters, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Tashkent, other cities in Russia and the Caucasus. Almaty is connected with all the regional centres of the Republic. The capital Astana is connected with 10 regional centres of Kazakhstan. The flights to the CIS are carried out from the airports of Almaty, Astana, Atyrau, Pavlodar, Karaganda, Aktau, and Ust-Kamenogorsk.

Kazakhstan is also served by international carriers such as Aeroflot Russian Airlines, Asiana Airlines, Austrian Airlines, British Airways, China Xinjiang Airlines, Delta Airlines, Finnair, Iran Air, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, LOT, Lufthansa German Airlines, PIA, SAS, Sinzyan Airlines, Tajik Airways, Transaero, Turkish Airlines, Turkmen Airlines, Ukraine Air and Uzbekistan Airways.

Inland Waterways: Two rivers, the Syr Darya and the Irtysh, total 4,000 kilometres of navigable water; there are 19 river transport companies, under state control. The navigation is carried out on the Caspian sea to Russia and Iran.
Ports: On the Caspian Sea there are Aqtau, Atyrau, and Fort Shevchenko, with limited commercial value.
Rail: There are 14,148 kilometres of track. The existing network of railroad routes connects the country with Russia, Kyrgyzstan, China, Uzbekistan and further through Turkmenistan to Iran. Practically by railroads it is possible to get to any point of former Soviet Union. Direct routes are leading to Europe.
Road: The basic road infrastructure (about 88,000 kilometres, of which about 83,000 kilometres are paved or gravel) serves the widely dispersed population and economic centres.
Urban transport: Public transport is bus, tram, trolleys and taxi. There are regular bus services between all major towns in Kazakhstan. top